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--- courses:cs211:winter2018:journals:cohene:home:chapter4 [2018/03/04 22:42] – [4.5: The Minimum Spanning Problem] cohene
+++ courses:cs211:winter2018:journals:cohene:home:chapter4 [2018/03/12 23:28] (current) – Added Section 4.8 cohene
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 This section applies an exchange argument to solve the Minimum Spanning Problem. The minimum spanning problem occurs when there is a set of locations that can be represented through nodes and we want to create a network on top of those locations. The network should be connected, having a path between each location, with the goal of creating the "cheapest" network possible. Pairs can be linked together for a specified, positive cost. The links can be represented though edges on the graph. To create the "cheapest" network, we want to keep c as small as possible. Here, we can assume that the graph is fully connected.
-We know that the minimum-cost solution to this problem can be turned into a tree, (V, T), where V are the locations and T is the solution to the problem. (V, T) must be connected by definition, and we need to show that it does not contain a cycle. To prove that there are no cycles, we use a proof by contradiction. Assuming there is some edge in a proposed cycle, the tree without that edge is still connected as any path with that edge can now find a longer path around the rest of the cycle instead. This also in turn solves the problem and is less expensive, which gives us a contradiction.
+We know that the minimum-cost solution to this problem can be turned into a tree, (V, T), where V are the locations and T is the solution to the problem. (V, T) must be connected by definition, and we need to show that it does not contain a cycle. To prove that there are no cycles, we use a proof by contradiction. Assuming there is some edge in a proposed cycle, the tree without that edge is still connected as any path with that edge can now find a longer path around the rest of the cycle instead. This also in turn solves the problem and is less expensive, which gives us a contradiction. A subset of the tree can be called a spanning tree of the graph.
+There are three greedy algorithms which creates a minimum spanning tree. The first of with is Kruskal's Algorithm, which starts without edges, building the spanning tree by inserting the edges in order of increasing cost. Edges are only inserted ass long as they do not create a cycle. The next algorithm is similar to Dijkstra's Algorithm for paths. Starting with root node, s, at each step add the node that can be added as cheaply as possible to the tree. This is known as Prim's Algorithm. The third algorithm starts with the graph and deletes edges in order of decreasing cost as long as we do not disconnect the current graph. This is the Reverse-Delete Algorithm.
+It is considered "safe" to include an edge in the minimum spanning tree when an edge has one end in the subset of nodes that is not empty nor equal to all of V (S), and the other in V-S. This is considered the cut property. It does seem slightly confusing that this is considered the "cut" property, as one would think the "cut" property would occur when you want to get rid of an edge (cut it). The cut property helps us prove the optimality of Kruskal's and Prim's Algorithm. Both algorithms only include an edge when it is justified by the Cut Property. Both algorithms produce a minimum spanning tree of the graph.The cycle property helps us to guarantee an edge is not in the Minimum Spanning Tree. The cycle property is as follows: if C is a cycle in G, and e is the most expensive edge belonging to C, then e does not belong to any minimum spanning tree of G. This property helps us prove the optimality of the reverse-delete algorithm. Using these two properties, we can say that any algorithm that builds a spanning tree by repeatedly including edges when justified by the Cut Property and deleting edges when justified by the Cycle Property.
+We can implement both Kruskal's and Prim's Algorithms in O(m log n) time.
+Overall this section was difficult to follow for me. I had a difficult time understanding some of this during class, and the textbook readings did not help very much. Overall readability was about a 4 out of 10.
 ===== 4.6: Implementing Kruskal's Algorithm: The Union-Find Data Structure =====
+The Union-Find data-structure will store a representation of connected components that allows us to quickly and efficiently search and update these components. This turns out to be the same data structure in Kruskal's Algorithm. This data structure allows us to maintain disjoint sets. Find(node) allows us to find the set containing that node. Union(nodeA, nodeB) takes to sets and merges them into a single set. To add an edge to a graph, first we must test that they're in the same connected component. If they are not, then we perform a union on them to combine them into one. This only works for addition, not deletion.
+To create this structure, we create an array Component, and a set with n elements. To create the union-find, we initialize the Component array to the set. We can optimize this set by choosing the name for the union to be the name of one of the sets. Furthermore, we can optimize by maintaining the union as a smaller set for any large sets. This gives the Union operation O(n) time. We can improve the structure for union-find by using pointers. The pointer implements Union in O(1) time, but Find is no longer constant, rather, takes O(log n) time.
+We can implement Kruskal's Algorithm by using the union-find data structure, which runs in O(m log n ) time.
 ===== 4.7: Clustering =====
+This section discusses clustering. Clustering can be used whenever one is attempting to organize a collection into various groups. There are various ways to group a collection. One way is by distance, such as with points on a plane. We can use minimum spanning trees to play a part in clusterings of maximum spacing. If we want to divide objects into k groups, we will have a k-clustering as a partition of a union into k nonempty sets. The spacing of a k-clustering is the minimum distance between any pair of points in different clusters.
+To find a clustering of maximum spacing, we want to cluster points as rapidly as possible. We grow a graph edge by edge, with connected components corresponding to clusters. This process will never create a cycle, but rather a union of trees. This procedure is extremely similar to Kruskal's Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm.
+===== 4.8: Huffman Codes and Data Compression =====
+This chapter discusses solving problems using data compression. Here, the problem is encoding symbols using bits. To convert various "alphabets" into language computers understand, we use bits. Typically, we use a system of a fixed number of bits per letter, which for the English alphabet (and a few symbols) gives of 32 symbols, which means we use 5 bits per symbol. Taking Computer Organization really helps in understanding how binary and bits work, so this is a somewhat familiar topic for me. Although we need 5 bits per symbol, what we really need is an average of 5 bits per symbol, as some symbols will be used more often than others. It is a waste to use so many bits on letters that are used very frequently. In fact, it makes a lot of sense to use less bits on letters used more frequently and more on those used less frequently. This is where data compression comes into play. The big question is how to find the most optimal way of compressing the data.
+One example of how data has been compressed is Morse code. Morse code translates each symbol into dots or dashes. However, Morse code removes ambiguity between letters that are represented similarly by adding a space in between each letter. If we were to turn this into bits, the ambiguity would remain as certain encodings are prefixes to others. A method must be built to eliminate the prefix problem. The method could work as follows:
+Start reading bits from left to right, once you come across enough bits to match an encoding this becomes a letter, continue with the next bit and repeat.
+Now, we must account for letter frequencies to make the most optimal encoding. We can use a greedy algorithm to find the optimal prefix code. First, we can build a tree to help us build each encoding. We will create a binary tree where each time we go from a node to its left child we add a 0 and every time we go from a node to its right child we add a 1. By using a tree, we can see that the length of each symbol in bits is its corresponding layer in the tree. We want to fill the binary tree to make it optimal.
+The first thought of building is tree is to attempt to build it top down. However, if we knew the optimal prefix code, this would help a great amount. We could then simply fill in the nodes of the tree. We would start with the highest frequency letters and move down through the tree, labeling nodes in order of decreasing frequency. This is essentially the basis of Huffman's Algorithm, which gives us a Huffman code.
+Huffman's Algorithm runs in polynomial time k, which is the number of letters in the alphabet, which recursively calls a sequence of k-1 iterations, which overall gives a O(k^2) runtime. However, if a priority queue is used to implement this algorithm, the run time can be dropped down to a nice O(k log k) runtime.